Comparative thinking is a fundamental human drive and a hallmark of contemporary life. For social action, such as the learning and use of additional languages, a target for appraisal (an L2 attribute) is evaluated in relation to a comparison standard (an appraiser's standpoint). An appraiser can be the person themselves, another person, a social group, people in a particular social context, or, in the broadest sense, people in society itself. While the range of potential appraisers is wide, in the L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS), parsimony has meant that the category of “other people” who function as appraisers is narrow. In this article we explore the role of socially focused appraisals in L2 motivation. In an age of algorithm-driven sociality, and at a point where generative AI is crossing an ontological line from “machine” to semi-human actor and “participant” in social life, we consider how social influence can extend beyond the standpoints of significant others. We explain how, in varying forms, “other people” can exert an influence on the L2 learner's motivation. In the paradoxical situation of researching an enterprise that is inherently social but lacking a conceptual apparatus to investigate social influence, we set out imperatives and make recommendations.

Research into the psychology of language learning (PLL) can make important contributions to the knowledge base of the teaching profession. However, impact can be hampered by conceptual accessibility. One way to enhance accessibility is to enable practitioners to encounter research through a smaller number of “big ideas”. A “big idea” is a core idea that connects subfields and links disciplinary understandings into coherent wholes. A “big idea” is not always apparent. Sometimes it needs to be uncovered. In PLL, a candidate “big idea” involves the role that comparison processes play in self-appraisals. This article reports on findings from a critical review, the purpose of which was to consider whether comparison processes meet the criteria for a “big idea”: a parsimoniously formulated and intuitively understandable concept that (a) spans across subfields, and (b) links disciplinary understandings. Four subfields of PLL were included in the review: motivation, regulation, willingness to communicate, and emotions. Examinations of paradigmatic models and key conceptualizations demonstrate how comparison processes meet these criteria. Results are discussed in relation to conceptual accessibility, the importance of formulating research objectives and interpreting findings in ways that benefit teachers and other non-specialist stakeholders, and the changes in research practices that are needed.

In dialogical self theory (DST) authenticity has not been a central concern. The humanist notion of a static, higher-order, superordinate, ultimate, and “true” self runs counter to the ontology of DST, and the conceptualization of the dialogical self as unconsolidated, multifaceted, dynamic, and sensitive to situational change. In a climate in which the psychology of authenticity is undergoing revision—and in which the existence of a “true” “inner” self is increasingly questioned—it is these qualities that make DST highly suited to the investigation of authenticity in contemporary life. Four aspects of DST can facilitate the exploration of authenticity: (1) the function of personal positions and their role in shaping and stylizing social positions, (2) how I-positions differ in relation to openness to innovation and the degree to which they are personally endorsed, (3) how I-positions can encompass a shared identity and can express a collective voice, and (4) the emotional tenor of experiences involving authenticity. To illustrate the utility of this conceptual assemblage, a case study of the authenticity experiences of an early-career language teacher is presented. The study demonstrates how, in the dialogical self, authenticity involves the experience of how one is in one’s actions and in one’s relationships.

For young people, a first encounter with criminal justice can have lasting effects. While perceptions of equitable treatment can generate feelings of belongingness and acceptance, treatment perceived as unfair or prejudicial can generate experiences of dissonance and exclusion. However, little research has examined young people’s appraisals of justice system encounters. The purpose of the study was to examine perceptions of criminal justice among young people suspected of a first, non-serious offence.

Using an intensive longitudinal design, young people suspected of criminal activity (n = 21) were interviewed during a justice process. Using subjective procedural justice as an analytical framework, a theory-driven thematic analysis was conducted. Results revealed how the actions of crime-prevention professionals were mostly appraised as proportionate and beneficially intended. However, some participants reported negative encounters and lacking opportunities for agency. Findings are evaluated in relation to the long-term consequences of a first encounter with criminal justice.

Learning a language is a creative process. It involves novelty and imagination. While curiosity can be highly beneficial, research is limited. Studies so far conducted have explored epistemic curiosity as a trait-like disposition. In contrast, the current study focuses on perceptual curiosity (PC). PC is a situational response evoked by novelty, complexity and ambiguities in sensory stimulation. PC generates attention and prompts visual inspection and discovery. The purpose of the study was to develop a scale to measure PC in the context of foreign language learning. The scale was administered to a sample of 208 upper secondary students in Sweden learning a foreign language (French, German or Spanish). Reliability was assessed and validation procedures were conducted. Results of confirmatory factor analysis revealed a one-factor structure, indicating that the FLPC scale captures a unitary phenomenon. In future research using the FLPC scale, adaptation to fit contextual circumstances, and ongoing validation are highlighted. The broader value of PC is also considered. Three areas of applied linguistics are identified: (a) younger children’s encounters, (b) orientations in linguistic landscapes, and (c) engagement with linguistic content in digital gaming. Design possibilities are discussed, and the limitations of the current research are identified.  

When language learning takes place post-migration, the challenge is not only to attain fluency. Learning is tied up with life opportunities and is overshadowed by hopes and fears for the future. In the post-migration phase, hopeful thinking can support the acculturation process. Hope is a goal-related construct that captures variation in adaptability in the pursuit of positive outcomes. It involves the interaction of (a) agency (goal-directed energy) and (b) pathways (strategic planning for goal accomplishment). When language learning takes place in situations of uncertainty, Hope can provide insights into adaptive learning behaviour. The purpose of the study was to examine the psychometric properties of the State Hope Scale (SHS) in a sample of adult migrants (n = 211) learning Swedish. First, the factor structure of Hope was investigated using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Second, convergent and discriminant validity were examined in relation to the associable constructs of Grit and Academic Buoyancy. Finally, measurement invariance for gender was examined. Findings support a one-factor structure. Consideration is given to (a) psychometric qualities of the SHS, and (b) the role of Hope in L2 psychology. Since language learning always involves a degree of uncertainty, Hope can be a useful construct for studying learner psychology.

Identities fundamental to the self, such as race and gender, can operatethrough visual markers on the body. Identities related to a person’s heritage, ornationality, can also become visible. However, when physical appearance means thata person can pass as a member of a dominant group, being identified or ‘marked’ asother takes place through language use. In migration contexts, situations where aperson’s heritage or nationality is revealed can lead to experiences of vulnerability.This study investigated the experiences of five Russian-speaking women living inSweden whose migrant backgrounds were not visibly noticeable, up until the pointthat interaction was initiated. Interviews were carried out in the summer of 2022during the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Data was analysed using a double hermeneutic approach. Findings revealed how, following the outbreak of the war, the fearof becoming visible increased. Fears of exposure triggered vigilant behaviours, andan experience of needing to regulate visibility. Results show how the experience ofhaving situational control over visibility could buffer against emotional pain causedby perceptions of negative positionings, and the risk of prejudicial treatment.

In applied psychology, ontological assumptions are rarely subjected to scrutiny. Yet ontological positionings will affect all aspects of a research undertaking. Assumptions about what is real—and what is not—will affect conceptualization, study design, and analytical focus. In the investigation of social influence, failure to engage with ontological positionings has resulted in a default ontology where priority is afforded to tangible entities, and where “other people” are often conflated with factually existing others. This is no less true for language learning psychology, an applied discipline where the social action of learning and using additional languages is explored using theories based on the self. With a focus on ontological assumptions that involve the status of others, and using Dialogical Self Theory (DST) as a lens through which to engage with these positionings, this article provides a theoretical review of key conceptualizations and empirical work in language learning psychology. The review demonstrates how assumptions about ontological status affect the conceptualization and investigation of social influence. For an applied discipline such as language learning psychology, it highlights the need to engage with ontology. Further, it demonstrates the utility of DST as a means of accessing and problematizing ontological assumptions and their consequences.

Al-Hoorie, Hiver, and In’nami (2024) offer compelling arguments for why L2 motivational self-system research is currently in a state of validation crisis. Seeking a constructive resolution to the crisis, in this response we argue that two fundamental conditions are needed for the field to emerge stronger: psychological readiness and methodological maturity. For psychological readiness, we call for a reframing of the “crisis” narrative. We highlight the need to value controversy, to normalize failure and (self-)correction, and to resist the allure of novelty. For methodological maturity, we suggest that an argument-based approach to validation can provide a constructive solution to current controversies. We present an integrated framework that can guide systematic validation efforts, and we demonstrate its application using a recent validation study as an example.

Drawing on Markus and Nurius's (1986) theory of possible selves and Higgins’s (1987) theory of self-discrepancies, Dörnyei (2005, 2009) developed the L2 self-guide, a construct explaining the generation of motivation for language learning. Because Dörnyei focused on convergences in the source theories, L2MSS researchers have come to regard possible selves (Markus & Nurius, 1986) and self-guides (Higgins, 1987) as differing manifestations of a common underlying phenomenon. However, when constructs are similar, but not identical, assumptions of equivalence can lead to theoretical and methodological confusion (Lawson & Robins, 2021). Drawing on observations by MacIntyre (2022; MacIntyre et al., 2009a, 2009b) in critical engagements with Dörnyei's scholarship, this article addresses disparities in the source construct conceptualizations. It considers the implications that follow when sibling constructs are viewed as identical, and when possible selves and self-guides are conjoined in a unitary construct. Together, conceptual divergencies in the source constructs and concerns about the validity of L2MSS scales (Al-Hoorie, et al., 2024a, 2024b) mean that the L2 self-guide should be disassembled. Ultimately, it is only if possible selves and self-guides are understood and investigated as discrete constructs that the value they may have for L2 motivation research can be fully assessed.