A systematic four-stage methodology was developed and applied to the Laser Metal Deposition with Wire (LMDw) of a duplex stainless steel (DSS) cylinder > 20 kg. In the four stages, single-bead passes, a single-bead wall, a block, and finally a cylinder were produced. This stepwise approach allowed the development of LMDw process parameters and control systems while the volume of deposited material and the geometrical complexity of components increased. The as-deposited microstructure was inhomogeneous and repetitive, consisting of highly ferritic regions with nitrides and regions with high fractions of austenite. However, there were no cracks or lack of fusion defects; there were only some small pores, and strength and toughness were comparable to those of the corresponding steel grade. A heat treatment for 1 h at 1100 degrees (C) was performed to homogenize the microstructure, remove nitrides, and balance the ferrite and austenite fractions compensating for nitrogen loss occurring during LMDw. The heat treatment increased toughness and ductility and decreased strength, but these still matched steel properties. It was concluded that implementing a systematic methodology with a stepwise increase in the deposited volume and geometrical complexity is a cost-effective way of developing additive manufacturing procedures for the production of significantly sized metallic components.

Duplex stainless steel (DSS) blocks with dimensions of 150 × 70x30 mm3 were fabricated by Laser Metal Deposition with Wire (LMDw). Implementation of a programmable logic control system and the hot-wire technology provided a stable and consistent process producing high-quality and virtually defect-free deposits. Microstructure and mechanical properties were studied for as-deposited (AD) material and when heat-treated (HT) for 1 h at 1100 °C. The AD microstructure was inhomogeneous with highly ferritic areas with nitrides and austenitic regions with fine secondary austenite occurring in a periodic manner. Heat treatment produced a homogenized microstructure, free from nitrides and fine secondary austenite, with balanced ferrite and austenite fractions. Although some nitrogen was lost during LMDw, heat treatment or reheating by subsequent passes in AD allowed the formation of about 50% austenite. Mechanical properties fulfilled common requirements on strength and toughness in both as-deposited and heat-treated conditions achieving the highest strength in AD condition and best toughness and ductility in HT condition. Epitaxial ferrite growth, giving elongated grains along the build direction, resulted in somewhat higher toughness in both AD and HT conditions when cracks propagated perpendicular to the build direction. It was concluded that high-quality components can be produced by LMDw and that deposits can be used in either AD or HT conditions. The findings of this research provide valuable input for the fabrication of high-performance DSS AM components

Nowadays there is a strong demand for lighter vehicles in order to increase the pay load. Through this the specific fuel consumption is decreased, the amount of greenhouse gases is lowered and the transport economy improved. One possibility to optimize the weight is to make the components from high strength steels and join them by welding. Welding is the main joining method for fabrication of a large proportion of all engineering structures. Many components experience fatigue loading during all or part of their life time and welded connections are often the prime location of fatigue failure.Fatigue fracture in welded structures often initiates at the weld toe as aconsequence of large residual stresses and changes in geometry acting as stress concentrators. The objective of this research is to increase the understanding of the factors that control fatigue life in welded components made from very high strength steels with a yield strength of more than 800 MPa. In particular the influences of the local weld toe geometry (weld toe radius and angle) and residual stress on fatigue life have been studied. Residual stresses have been varied by welding with conventional as well as Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) filler materials. The three non-destructive techniques Weld Impression Analysis (WIA), Laser Scanning Profiling (LSP) and Structured Light Projection (SLP) have been applied to evaluate the weld toe geometry.Results suggest that all three methods could be used successfully to measure the weld toe radius and angle, but the obtained data are dependent on the evaluation procedure. WIA seems to be a suitable and economical choice when the aim is just finding the radius. However, SLP is a good method to fast obtain a threedimensional image of the weld profile, which also makes it more suitable for quality control in production. It was also found that the use of LTTconsumables increased fatigue life and that residual stress has a relatively larger influence than the weld toe geometry on fatigue strength of welded parts.

In recent years a strong interest has been expressed to produce lighter structures.One possible solution to reduce the weight is to utilize high strength steels and use welding as the joining method. Many components experience fatigue loadingduring all or part of their life time and welded connections are often the prime location of fatigue failure. This becomes more critical in welded high strength steels as fatigue strength of welds does not increase by increasing the steel strength. A possible solution to overcome this issue is to use fatigue improvement methods.The main objectives of this project are, therefore, to increase understanding of the factors that control fatigue life and to investigate how the fatigue strength improvement methods; high frequency mechanical impact (HFMI) treatment and use of Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) consumables will affect fatigue properties of welds in high strength steels. In this regard, Gas Metal Arc Welding(GMAW) was used to produce butt and fillet welds using LTT or conventional fillers in steels with yield strengths ranging from 650-1021 MPa and T-joint weldsin a steel with 1300 MPa yield strength. The effect of HFMI on fatigue strength of the welds in 1300 MPa yield strength steels was also investigated. Butt and fillet welds in 650-1021 MPa steels were fatigue tested under constant amplitude tensile loading with a stress ratio of 0.1 while T-joints were fatigue tested under constant amplitude fully reversed bending load with a stress ratio of -1. The nominal stress approach was used for fatigue strength evaluation of butt and fillet welds whereas the effective notch stress approach was used in case of T-joints. Relative effectsof the main parameters such as residual stress and weld toe geometry influencing fatigue strength of welds were evaluated. Residual stresses were measured using X-ray diffraction for as-welded and HFMI treated welds. Neutron diffraction was additionally used to investigate the near surface residual stress distribution in 1300 MPa LTT welds.Results showed that use of LTT consumables increased fatigue strength of welds in steels with yield strengths ranging from 650-1021 MPa. For butt welds, the vii characteristic fatigue strength (FAT) of LTT welds at 2 million cycles was up to46% higher when compared to corresponding welds made with conventional fillermaterials. In fillet welds, a maximum improvement of 132% was achieved when using LTT wires. The increase in fatigue strength was attributed to the lower tensile residual stresses or even compressive stresses produced close to the weldtoe in LTT welds. Weld metals with martensite transformation start temperatures around 200 °C produced the highest fatigue strength. In 1300 MPa yield strength steel, similar FAT of 287 MPa was observed for LTT welds and 306 MPa for conventional welds, both much higher than the IIW FATvalue of 225 MPa. The relative transformation temperatures of the base and weldmetals, specimen geometry and loading type are possible reasons why the fatigue strength was not improved by use of LTT wires. Neutron diffraction showed that the LTT consumable was capable of inducing near surface compressive residual stresses in all directions at the weld toe. It was additionally found that there arevery steep stress gradients both transverse to the weld toe line and in the depth direction, at the weld toe. Due to difficulties to accurately measure residual stresses locally at the weld toe most often in the literature and recommendations residual stresses a few millimetre away from the weld toe are related to fatigue properties. However, this research shows that caution must be used when relating these to fatigue strength, in particular for LTT welds, as stress in the base materiala few millimetre from the weld toe can be very different from the stress locally at the weld toe.HFMI increased the mean fatigue strength of conventional welds in 1300 MPa steels about 26% and of LTT welds by 13%. It increased the weld toe radius slightly but produced a more uniform geometry along the treated weld toes. Large compressive residual stresses, especially in the longitudinal direction, were introduced adjacent to the weld toe for both LTT and conventional treated welds. It was concluded that the increase in fatigue strength by HFMI treatment is due to the combined effect of weld toe geometry modification, increase in surface hardness and introduction of compressive residual stresses in the treated region.It was concluded that the residual stress has a relatively larger influence than the weld toe geometry on fatigue strength of welds. This is based on the observation that a moderate decrease in residual stress of about 15% at the 300 MPa stress level had the same effect on fatigue strength as increasing the weld toe radius by approximately 85% from 1.4 mm to 2.6 mm, in fillet welds. Also, a higher fatigue strength was observed for HFMI treated conventional welds compared to as welded samples having similar weld toe radii but with different residual stresses.

The usage of high strength steel (HSS) is steadily increasing, primarily driven by the pursuit of weight reduction, leading to a subsequent decrease in greenhouse gas emissions. This paper investigates the impact of various post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) temperatures of 525°C, 550°C and 575°C with a holding time of 2h on both the microstructure and mechanical properties of weld metal produced using a HSS metal cored wire. The investigation reveals that PWHT does not significantly alter strength but has a more pronounced influence on toughness. The as-welded condition exhibited the highest toughness. Among the samples subjected to the PWHT, the one treated at 575°C showed the highest impact energy, reaching 69  J at −60°C. This outcome is attributed to the increased presence of acicular ferrite in the microstructure, surpassing that of samples subjected to PWHT at different temperatures.

Application of Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) consumables in welding is a recent approach to increase the fatigue strength of welds. In this paper high strength steels with yield strengths ranging from 650-1021 MPa were fillet and butt welded using different LTT and conventional consumables. The effects of weld metal chemical composition on phase transformation temperatures, residual stresses and fatigue strength were investigated. Lower transformation start temperatures and hence lower tensile or even compressive residual stresses were obtained close to the weld toe for LTT welds. Fatigue testing showed very good results for all combinations of LTT consumables and high strength steels with varying strength levels. For butt welds, the characteristic fatigue strength (FAT) of LTT welds at 2 million cycles was up to 46% higher when compared to corresponding welds made with conventional filler materials. In fillet welds, a minimum FAT improvement of 34% and a maximum improvement of 132% was achieved when using LTT wires. It is concluded that different LTT consumables can successfully be employed to increase fatigue strength of welds in high strength steels with yield strength up to 1021 MPa. Weld metals with martensite transformation start temperatures close to 200°C result in the highest fatigue strengths.

The weld toe is one of the most probable fatigue crack initiation sites in welded components. In this paper, the relative influences of residual stresses and weld toe geometry on the fatigue life of cruciform welds was studied. Fatigue strength of cruciform welds produced using Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) filler material has been compared to that of welds produced with a conventional filler material. LTT welds had higher fatigue strength than conventional welds. A moderate decrease in residual stress of about 15% at the 300 MPa stress level had the same effect on fatigue strength as increasing the weld toe radius by approximately 85% from 1.4 mm to 2.6 mm. It was concluded that residual stress had a relatively larger influence than the weld toe geometry on fatigue strength.

Evaluation of residual stress in the weld toe region is of critical importance. In this paper, the residual stress distribution both near the surface and in depth around the weld toe was investigated using neutron diffraction, complemented with X-ray diffraction. Measurements were done on a 1300 MPa yield strength steel welded using a Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) consumable. Near surface residual stresses, as close as 39 µm below the surface, were measured using neutron diffraction and evaluated by applying a near surface data correction technique. Very steep surface stress gradients within 0.5 mm of the surface were found both at the weld toe and 2 mm into the heat affected zone (HAZ). Neutron results showed that the LTT consumable was capable of inducing near surface compressive residual stresses in all directions at the weld toe. It is concluded that there are very steep stress gradients both transverse to the weld toe line and in the depth direction, at the weld toe in LTT welds. Residual stress in the base material a few millimeters from the weld toe can be very different from the stress at the weld toe. Care must, therefore, be exercised when relating the residual stress to fatigue strength in LTT welds.

Stellite 6 alloy in the form of powder was deposited on a ductile cast iron substrate using a low power pulsed Nd:YAG laser. The effects of process parameters on the resulting microstructure and hardness were studied with emphasis on the single and multi-track deposits. The results revealed that the cladded layers consist of carbides dispersed in a Co-based solid solution matrix with a dendritic structure. Multi-track cladded layers have coarser dendrites compared to those of single-track cladded layer due to a longer exposure time at high temperature and slower cooling rates as more layers were deposited

In this paper, T-joint samples in a 1300 MPa yield strength steel were produced using conventional or low transformation temperature (LTT) type consumables. The welded samples were either subjected to high-frequency mechanical impact (HFMI) treatment or to shot-peening. Fatigue testing was performed under fully reversed, constant amplitude bending load. Shot-peening gave a significant increase in fatigue strength for more than around 50,000 cycles. Shot-peened LTT welds had the highest fatigue strength, with conventional welds being shot-peened having slightly lower fatigue strength. HFMI treatment of conventional and LTT welds improved the fatigue strength also, but to a lesser extent, keeping the slope in the SN diagram close to three, while shot-peened samples had a slope of 5–7. Significant differences in compressive residual stress were seen between the different welds, with the most compressive stress found in the shot-peened samples. This was probably one of the main reasons for the improved fatigue life of shot-peened samples. © 2020, The Author(s).

Fatigue improvement techniques are widely used to increase fatigue strength of welded high strength steels. In this paper high frequency mechanical impact (HFMI) and a Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) filler material were employed to investigate the effect on fatigue strength of welded 1300 MPa yield strength steel. Fatigue testing was done under fully reversed, constant amplitude bending load on T-joint samples. Fatigue strength of LTT welds was the same as for welds produced using a conventional filler material. However, HFMI treatment increased the mean fatigue strength of conventional welds about 26% and of LTT welds about 13%. Similar distributions of residual stresses and almost the same weld toe radii were observed for welds produced using LTT and conventional consumables. HFMI increased the weld toe radius slightly and produced a more uniform geometry along the treated weld toes. Relatively large compressive residual stresses, adjacent to the weld toe were produced and the surface hardness was increased in the treated region for conventional welds after HFMI. For this specific combination of weld geometry, steel strength and loading conditions HFMI treatment gave higher fatigue strength than LTT consumables.

The three non-destructive methods Weld Impression Analysis, Laser Scanning Profiling and Structured Light Projection were employed to measure the weld toe radius of fillet welds. All three methods could be used succesfully but results are dependent on evaluation procedure. The results show that the weld toe geometry cannot be considered uniform and varies along the weld. It was also found that the measured weld toe radii do not vary significantly with minor variations ofthe surface profile orientation.

The effects of high frequency mechanical impact (HFMI) treatment procedure on the weld toe geometry and fatigue strength in 1300 MPa yield strength steel welds were investigated. In this regard first the effect of three or six run treatments on the weld toe geometry was evaluated. The fatigue strength and weld toe geometry of as-welded and HFMI treated samples was then compared. Fatigue testing was done under fully reversed, constant amplitude bending load. When increasing the number of treatment runs from three to six, the weld toe radius and width of treatment remained almost constant. However, a slightly smaller depth of treatment in the base metal and a somewhat larger depth of treatment in the weld metal was observed. HFMI treatment increased the fatigue strength by 26%. The treatment did not increase the weld toe radius significantly, but resulted in a more uniform weld toe geometry along the weld. A depth of treatment in the base metal in the range of 0.15-0.19 mm and a width of treatment in the range of 2.5-3 mm, were achieved. It is concluded that the three run treatment would be a more economical option than the six run treatment providing a similar or even more favourable geometry modification.

High frequency mechanical impact (HFMI) is a recent post weld treatment method which can be employed to increase the fatigue strength of welded components. In this paper the fatigue strength of as-welded and HFMI treated fillet welds in a 1300 MPa yield strength steel was compared. Fatigue testing was done under fully reversed, constant amplitude bending load. Finite element analysis was used to calculate the stress distribution in the weld toe region to permit evaluation of the fatigue data with the effective notch stress approach. As-welded samples showed a mean fatigue strength of 353 MPa and a characteristic fatigue strength of 306 MPa. HFMI treatment increased the mean fatigue strength by 26% and the characteristic fatigue strengths by 3%. The weld toe radii in as-welded condition were large. HFMI only increased the weld toe radii slightly but resulted in a more uniform weld toe geometry along the weld. A depth of indentation in the base metal in the range of 0.15–0.19 mm and a width of indentation in the range of 2.5–3 mm, were achieved. Maximum compressive residual stresses of about 800 MPa in the longitudinal and 250 MPa in the transverse direction were introduced by HFMI treatment, adjacent to the weld toe. The surface hardness was increased in the entire HFMI treated region. It is concluded that the increase in fatigue strength is due to the combined effects of the weld toe geometry modification, increase in surface hardness and creation of compressive residual stresses in the treated region.

This research work is the first step in evaluating the feasibility of producing industrial components by using Laser Metal Deposition with duplex stainless steel Wire (LMDw). The influence of Ar and N2 shielding gases was investigated in terms of nitrogen loss and in the microstructure and austenite content of different deposited geometries. The evolution of the microstructure in the build-up direction of the Ar and N2-shielded blocks was compared in the heat-treated and as-deposited conditions. The susceptibility for oxygen pick-up in the LMDw deposits was also analyzed, and oxygen was found to be in the range of conventional gas-shielded weldments. Nitrogen loss occurred when Ar-shielding was used; however, the use of N2-shielding prevented nitrogen loss. Austenite content was nearly doubled by using N2-shielding instead of Ar-shielding. The heat treatment resulted in an increase of the austenite content and of the homogeneity in the microstructure regardless of the shielding gas used. The similarity in microstructure and the low spread in the phase balance for the as-deposited geometries is a sign of having achieved a stable and consistent LMDw process in order to proceed with the build-up of more complex geometries closer to industrial full-size components.