Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Command and Control (C2) raises questions about the interaction between operators on different levels on the one hand and AI-supported information systems on the other. For some purposes, the aggregation and analysis of large “big data”-sets creates potential for prediction and calculations of probabilities, while for other purposes human heuristics may be as promising depending on the situation. What has been more rarely discussed, is the very quality of data underpinning such calculations, and thus also operators’ awareness of the validity of predictions in relation to any specific situation. This is an urgent debate, considering the fact that full transparency may be impossible and underpinning data may be based on exercises, simulations, real-time data, or a mix thereof. Based on a fundamental classification of different kinds of uncertainties, this article discusses how data of different origins and quality can be managed and communicated to allow for operators to assess on what basis predictions are made. The article further suggests that looking at other fields of research may be useful for exploring unconventional ways of highlighting the existence and quality of different kinds of data of different origins in order to assess its predictive power. Finally, the article discusses how AI may change the role of analysts with regard to such issues.

The purpose of this pilot study is to identify specific safety climate dimensions pertaining to firearm safety and accidental discharge of firearms. New items capture the seriousness in firearms training pertaining to safety, handling and learning. The new items were developed in cooperation with the Swedish Armed Forces. The new items together with the Nordic safety climate questionnaire and the military safety climate questionnaire were distributed to one regiment within the Swedish Armed Forces.

Data was collected and analyzed through statistical methods. An exploratory factor analysis initially indicated two new factors. The confirmatory factor analysis rejected one new factor keeping Serious firearms training. A two-level factor model was created influenced by accidents and incidents relating to firearms. Two latent variables were identified Safety Voice and Safety engagement both affected by accidents and incidents relating to firearms. The employee category squad leaders, soldiers or sailors at the lowest level of the organization, display significant differences compared to others in creating a climate were incidents and accidents might not be discussed or learnt from preventing unsafe behavior.

The results from this study have one dominant limitation, this being that the sample size is only from one regiment. The new factor Serious firearms training need additional testing and validation before being adopted into an instrument. Future research should focus on verifying the two-level factor model with additional data from other military installations and to incorporate other types of variables into the model.

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the potential effects of machine learning and artificial intelligence on military organizations, on a general basis. ChatGPT, has sparked a debate in universities all over the world, and language model software’s are likely to impact how military personnel conduct their work – several officers work on tasks that could benefit from machine learning integration, such as logistics, healthcare, maintenance, intelligence, and others. However, officers will need to develop skills to ask relevant questions to extract information from the algorithm and train the algorithm to process relevant information with sufficient quality. That is, the military organization needs to develop different methods of learning. Exercises, particularly two-sided field exercises with a friendly and a hostile side, now have two additional learners, the friendly and the hostile algorithm. The potential risks of learning faults and errors from exercises are always present, and introducing algorithms increases these risks. Humans learn by facing different situations and Collection of Abstracts NATO in the Nordics10 reflecting on their actions, while algorithms learn by classifying available data. Understanding the learning needs of humans and algorithms has strategic implications. 

Syftet med denna artikel är att diskutera hur ett innovativt ekosystem kan skapas för att stödja militär innovation. Krigföring har alltid varit beroende av innovation för att öka soldaternas dödlighet, säkerhet och överlevnad. Sverige och Försvarsmakterna kommer sannolikt att ansluta sig till Nato med dess fokus på teknisk innovation. Strategiska dokument som reglerar hur forskning beställs inom Försvarsmakterna har analyserats med hjälp av aktivitetsteori. Resultaten indikerar att flera regler är motsägande och stödjer inte kunskapsförvärv inom okända områden. Systemdesignen för att förvärva kunskap bygger på antagandet om värde, vissa typer av kunskap är mer värdefulla än andra typer av kunskap. Intressant nog bedöms kunskap om militär praktik och militär ledningsfilosofi som meningslös enligt systemdesignen. Denna studie har flera begränsningar, en av dem är tillgängliga dokument som beskriver hur forskning och kunskap ordnas mellan Försvarsmakterna och andra forskningsenheter. En annan begränsning är den militära sökmotorn, som inte verkar visa söksvaret på ett tillgängligt och tillförlitligt sätt. Framtida forskning bör fokusera på interventioner och förändringsledning för att hjälpa Försvarsmakterna att utveckla ett innovativt ekosystem.

The study investigates how two-sided military exercises affect learning and participating personnel's ability to perform tasks safely when confronted with an equally matched opponent. Data were collected from two separate events the Northern Wind 2019 Final Planning Conference and the Northern Wind 2019 exercise using participatory observations and shadowing. The outline of the critical incident technique was used as a guide when designing the data collection and the activity theory framework was used for coding and analyzing the data. The results indicate that a driven desire to win two-sided military exercises can create unsafe work practices by performing work tasks without regard for occupational-, electrical- or fire safety. The results also indicate a need for reshaping the conception of a two-sided military exercise by treating the exercise as a learning opportunity and recognizing the impact of the participating unit on each other’s learning. The study is based on the results of one army exercise and requires further research to understand the activities that take place and how they affect learning and safety. However, it gives some insight into the learning problems occurring during military field exercises.

Preventing accidents within a complex environment like a force on force military exercise ischallenging for the organization. The aim of this study is to investigate safety behavior by usingactivity theory in combination with critical incident technique in order to identify conditions effectingthe health and safety of individuals employed by the Swedish armed forces (SwAF) participating inmilitary exercises. The empirical data was collected from two separate events final planningconference of Northern Wind 2019 (FPC-NW19) and the exercise Northern Wind 2019 (NW19). Datawas collected using observations and conversations with military, medical and safety professionals.One researcher followed the FPC-NW19 and the observed the exercise NW19 by shadowing staffmembers and safety personnel.Data was analyzed, thematized and coded using the third generation of activity theory and its areas:tools, rules, community, division of labor, subject and object as a guide for identifying contradictions.Results indicate that the methods used for planning and the use of safety equipment whenconducting military tasks during the exercise is influenced by the desire of winning the exercise.The results also indicate that activity theory can be a useful tool to identify contradictions affectingsafety performance. However, the study is only limited to two events with a narrow scope from theArmy. Further refinement is needed to develop a functioning method for analyzing safety behavior.

The article argues for a changed perspective on military tactics and safety. By seeing militarytactics as safety knowledge, a wider perspective can be applied to a military problem. Safety isin fact a military core capability impossible to exclude from any military operation. By ignoringsafety, one becomes susceptible to embedded safety flaws, increasing organizational hazards.This could cause mission failure and exposing military personnel to occupational safety risks.

Den militära organisationen inkluderar olika verksamheter vilket skiljer den fran civila organisationer. Den militära organisationen har sin motsvarighet i flera olika civila organisationer som sjöfart, luftfart, sjukvård och transport for att nämna några områden. Den allomfattande militära verksamheten regleras av samma lagar som övriga aktörer i samhället forhåller sig till. Det som är unikt med den militära organisationen är den kontinuerligt tränar och övar för krig. Organisationens personal exponeras för utmaningen att tankemässigt växla mellan individuell och kollektiv risktagning att tänka och träna (krig), Sveriges säkerhet. Samtidigt förvantas individen förebygga risker i de farliga situationer som påverkar den individuella säkerheten som individen möter i sitt arbete.

Säkerhetsklimat ar organisationsmedlemmarnas kollektiva uppfattning om området säkerhet (Neal & Griffin, 2002; Zohar, 1980). Uppfattningarna skapas genom att gruppen ser hur säkerhet uttrycks, prioriteras och hanteras i organisationen till exempel i organisationens regler, rutiner, instruktioner och dokument (Kines et al., 2011). Uppfattningar ar särskilt viktiga i organisationens säkerhetsarbete och bidrar till att vissa säkerhetsomraden uppfattas som mer eller mindre viktiga i det dagliga arbetet (Fahlbruch & Wilpert, 1999; Flin, 1998; Flin et al., 2000). Dessa uppfattningar påverkar aven förekomsten av olyckor och tillbud som kan orsaka skador pa människor, utrustning och miljö (Beus et al., 2010; Christian et al., 2009; Fugas et al., 2012; Kuenzi & Schminke, 2009; Nahrgang et al., 2011; Tholen et al., 2013). For att kartlägga säkerhetsklimatet används olika enkätinstrument. Det finns inga säkerhetsklimatinstrument som är anpassade  till  hela  den  militära  organisationens verksamhet. De säkerhetsklimatinstrument som finns mäter säkerhetsklimat utifrån en specifik verksamhet som till exempel sjöfart. I den föreliggande avhandlingen har en modifierad version av instrumentet Nordic Safety Climate Questionnaire använts för att mäta säkerhetsklimat i flera olika delar av den militära organisationen. Ytterligare områden har adderats till instrumentet for att fånga de situationer som militär personal möter i den dagliga verksamheten dvs övning, etik, och fysikträning.

Avhandlingens syfte är att utveckla ett verktyg för att undersöka säkerhetsklimat i en militär organisation samt att undersöka relationen mellan säkerhet och lärande i det militära arbetet.

Resultaten visar att det anpassade instrumentet NOSACQ-50 diskriminerar mellan olika stridskrafter och nivåer i den militära organisationen. Resultaten visar att de nyskapade dimensionerna: Ledningens stöd, Kunskap om lagar, Etik, Prioritering av träning, Undvikande av träning, Rättvis utvärdering, Acceptans av vulnerabilitet mäter andra aspekter av säkerhet som har relevans for den miliära organisationen.

Vidare har säkerhet undersökts under en militär övning. Datainsamlingen designades efter  metoden  kritiska  incidenter.  Deltagande  observationer genomfördes av planeringen inför övningen Northern Wind 2019 (NW19). Skuggning användes for att följa övningsdeltagarna under övningen NW19. Resultaten visar att begäret att vinna övningen påverkar hur deltagarna arbetar med säkerhet. Deltagande enheter blir med sina beslut och aktioner omedvetet varandras lärare. Övningsdeltagarna påverkas av "gamer mode" vilket medför att säkerhetsreglerna upplevs hindrande for övningsvinsten. Övningsscenariot skapar en situation där verklighetsliknande situationer sammanblandas med autentiska. Konkreta uppgifter går att imitera (flytta den gröna lådan) medan abstrakta uppgifter inte kan imiteras (samarbeta med andra myndigheter som Polisen). Problematiken skapar ett underlag som kan vilseleda organisationen och skapa kunskap som inte fungerar utanför övningen. Problem och svårigheter synliggörs inte utan bildar organisatoriska svagheter som kan orsaka farliga situationer för individen och organisationen.

För att ytterligare förstå militar säkerhet behöver arbetet kompletteras med ytterligare studier riktade mot marina och flygvapenövningar. Vidare behöver instrumentet kompletteras med påståenden som fångar personalens uppfattning om säkerhetslösningens faktiska tillämpbarhet när den används i den militära verksamheten.

The purpose of this article is to discuss the transformation of Twitter from a usable tool for spreading information to a space for learning. When we talk about different software, we in many cases can’t phantom their outreach and connectivity. Specific software solutions have been integrated into our lives making them a part of ourselves. Specific tools can be designed to enhance specific functions within the software such as automatic accounts spreading keywords users write. Users are humans and perceive their cyber environment in the same way as they perceive human interaction in real life. The transformation changed the tool to an area of operation where different stakeholders can interact with each other. From an intelligence perspective, the distinction between technology and HUMINT no longer serves its purposes of classification – it has merged into one and the same. From the perspective of C2, information technology in itself is still emphasized at the cost of other dimensions, hence obscuring the very mechanisms of how what is only seen as social media in fact is a dimension of itself. While the human dimension is sometimes addressed, there is a dearth of research exploring its workings.

Machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI) are taking the world by storm. Armed forces around the world are thinking about new concepts or adaptations to integrate ML and AI in different functions affecting the military work environment. The purpose of this article is to broaden the perspective and challenge the perception of a military ML or AI integration. Military exercises are important tools for armed forces throughout the world. Learning to fight wars in a safe environment which emphasizes learning, saves lives on the battlefield. Through the theoretical framework of human activity, it is possible to understand the challenges soldiers and officers face when conducting double-sided live field exercises. The introduction of ML and AI in the exercise environment also creates a new learning environment with two more learning participants. By understanding the human zone of proximal development, we can also better understand the learning limitations and constraints an integrated ML or AI must consider before adjusting the algorithm. Simply accepting every collected data stream from a double-sided live field exercise might lead to learned faults and errors endangering the lives of soldiers and officers. To mediate the risk a new type of exercise needs to be developed with a focus on all participants learning opportunities both human and machine

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the conception of speed in command and control (C2) systems’ impact on human thought and to introduce the notion of “Combat Integrated Learning” (CIL). In a context of increased complexity, unpredictability and ambiguity, adaptation not only concerns agility in terms of speed, but through resilience, self- healing and – in lack of calculable consequence ethics – an Aristotelian notion of virtue as a stable equilibrium of the soul as a basis for choice of action “knowingly and for its own sake”. As humans we have many cognitive functions which impact how we perceive information i.e., sensemaking and situation awareness. But the essence of thinking is a philosophical issue where philosophers like Arendt previously explained the emergence of banal evil as ordinary men having lost their ability to think. C2 systems that make us reactive to a piece of information, inciting speed to act, minimize human reflection and learning. Developing time effective C2 systems could in fact lead to the creation of military stupidity. Authority, organizational and administrative procedures may lead to normalization of risk, morally questionable attitudes and actions, routinized humiliation and behavior that ultimately break down sensemaking and the sense of “self” in degraded environments. C2 systems and their uses may hamper intelligent action through the loss of an active agency of the individual, thus impede understanding and management of the battlespace, especially in the light of deception and disinformation, and unclear causal relations of events in constrained environments. This paper points at potential good practices in the face of ambiguity.

The aim of this study was to investigate critical incidents in a large medical exercise (mass casualty incident) including the Swedish Armed Forces (SwAF) and a regional hospital using activity theory. A total of 96 individuals played injured patients with a variety of injuries from simple cuts and bruises to severe head injuries. Patients were evacuated by different means of transportation i.e. minivan, ambulance, military as well as civilian ambulance helicopter.We participated in the final planning of the exercise in order to obtain access for the research team. Data was collected through observations, shadowing technique and 20 semi structured interviews. Professionals from the regional hospital and SwAF as well as evaluating personnel were interviewed. The interviewees were asked to describe significant events experienced during the exercise.

Two researchers observed the triage and registration process in the ambulance intake and the emergency room of the hospital. One researcher observed the command and control (C2) function within the mass casualty management (MCM).Two students from the Swedish Defense University and three from University West collected data by playing injured patients according to the determined injure play card provided by SwAF. The students were instructed to observe what they themselves would classify as critical incidents based on their own subject i.e. education, economics and command and control studies. Five questions guided the observations: What happened? Who were involved? What consequences did the incident have? How were these consequences handled by the organization? Did the incident affect other areas?Data was analyzed, thematized and coded using the third generation of activity theory and its areas: tools, rules, community, division of labor, subject and object as a guide for identifying contradictions within the regional hospital and the emergency medical plan developed for handling large casualty events.Preliminary results indicated that participating personnel were not faced with conditions mimicking real life but learned to deal with a corrected version of reality i.e. preparations before the start of the exercise created shortcuts affecting the veracity of the exercise. This was manifested through contradictions within and between the activity systems and the conflicting motives carried by the objects.The results might impact the future designs of large exercises, influencing the conditions that the participants will face in exercises and thereby increasing preparedness for authentic situations.

The purpose of this study is to adjust and develop Nordic Safety Climate Questionnaire (NOSACQ-50) specifically for the military domain. Many safety climate instruments have been developed for complex organizations but few with a military perspective including military exercises and physical training. Data were collected during two separate occasions, experiment one (n = 956) and experiment two (n = 377). The questionnaire was distributed to civilian and military personnel working in the Swedish Armed Forces and to military cadets. The results of experiment one was then analyzed using principal component analyses and confirmatory factor analyses, the factor structure was reproduced in experiment two. The results from the study confirmed the reliability and validity of NOSACQ-50 as a safety climate instrument in the military organization. However, several new factors were identified with the military safety climate questionnaire (MSCQ). Physical fitness and exercises are important activities in the military but are less important in other organizations which could explain why it isn’t present in traditional safety climate instruments. This study identifies several limitations one being the design of questions suitable for both military and civilian personnel. Another limitation is combat operations, this data collection recognizes the field but was unable to capture data from actual combat operations. Further research is needed to fully develop more dimensions for both exercises and combat operations.

The aim of this pilot study is to adjust the NOSACQ-50 to the work environment of military organizations.NOSACQ-50 is a validated tool successfully used in several organizational domains to measure occupationalsafety climate (OSC). In general, few studies have been published investigating OSC in militaryorganizations. NOSACQ-50 consists of 50 items across 7 OSC dimensions, i.e. group members' sharedperceptions of: 1) management safety priority, commitment and competence; 2) management safetyempowerment; 3) management safety justice; 4) workers' safety commitment; 5) workers' safety priority andrisk non-acceptance; 6) safety communication, learning, and trust in co-workers' safety competence; 7)workers' trust in the efficacy of safety systems. To assess the relevance of the NOSACQ-50 items, a revisedversion of the instrument was sent to 11 military safety experts. In addition, 19 items pertaining to areas notcovered by NOSACQ-50 were validated by the same experts. After contents validation, data from 517participants from 4 garrisons were collected. The results showed that NOSACQ-50 had acceptable reliabilityscores (.70-.89.), and the factor structure was confirmed by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Principalcomponent analyses (PCA) of the supplementary 19 items showed that 12 items grouped into threedimensions (alpha .74-.91): Management enabling safety performance, personnel's knowledge of andcompetence in national laws regulating safety and Unit ethics. In conclusion, preliminary results showed theadjusted NOSACQ-50 instrument could be used to measure OSC in military organizations. However,additional studies must be performed to improve and develop military specific dimensions not covered byNOSACQ-50.

During the Covid-19 pandemic social media have become an important tool for spreading information from government agencies regarding restrictions. Government accounts and public health care organizations have used different social media platforms such as Twitter to communicate with the Swedish public. The Swedish public have interacted with the information, arguing for a stricter or a more relaxed approach to Covid-19 recommendations. This social network analysis aims at exploring statistical methods to investigate patterns made by twitter accounts commenting the Swedish Armed Forces field hospital activities and the national Covid-19 strategy during the Covid-19 pandemic. Data was collected using the twitter platform and the Ncapture add-on with Google Chrome. The interactions stored in the tweets and replies section (TRS) from 227 twitter accounts were collected and coded with the NVivo auto code function. Twitter usernames that occurred in less than 35 % of the 227 TRS were deleted. The 227 extracted TRS were treated as scale items and occurring twitter-names which interacted with the TRS as respondents n=761. Analysis of the factor structure with PCA and CFA indicated four factors: 1) Military policy, 2) Right wing politics, 3) Law enforcement, 4) Politics and strategy. Structural Equation Modelling revealed interrelationships between the factors. Thus, Military policy, Law enforcement and Politics and strategy had a direct effect on Right wing politics. Politics and strategy had a direct effect on Military policy and Law enforcement. This study revealed that PCA, CFA and SEM have the potential to discover the core of a thought collective. Despite the obvious dangers with misinformation and political extremism on social media, policymakers need to tackle misinformation and disinformation, protecting electoral processes and facilitating public discussion, built on the three fundamental democratic principles of equality, representation and participation.

In the midst of a semester the COVID-19 pandemic forced many universities to abruptly reorganize courses from being taught on campus to completely being imparted online. Therefore, the present study seeks to explore how students perceived the impact of COVID-19 on psychological well-being, stress, and satisfaction with their studies in a Swedish university. Participants were 560 university students in West Sweden attending courses during the spring semester of 2020.

The study is part of a larger study involving eight different countries, including Sweden, with the objective to examine the impact of COVID-19 on university student’s well-being. Although this abstract only cover a small part of the collected data, the Swedish participants. The same questionnaire was sent to all fellow countries. In June 2020, 14571 students at a Swedish university received an e-mail including information about the study, an invitation to participate, and a link to the questionnaire. In total, 560 students chose to take part in the study. They were women (318) and men (242), mean age 29. 24 years (18-78) attending courses at undergraduate - (87.60%) and graduate levels. Most participants studied fulltime (87.60%), resided at home(71.60%) and stated they were following Governments recommendations about protection from COVID-19 (79.33%). The questionnaire was written in English, was administered with Qualtrics XM software, and took approximately 20 minutes to complete. The questionnaire included measures of Concerns about COVID-19, Perceived Stress, Well-being, Satisfaction with university information, University Support for Online Learning, having Sufficient Technical Requirements, Social Identification, and Satisfaction with studies. Cronbach’s alfa for the different scales ranged from .70 to .93. Spearman correlation analysis showed that satisfaction with studies was significantly related to all other measures. High concerns about Corona (-.096), low University support for Online Learning (-.638), low Satisfaction with University Information (-.549), low Social Identification (-.469), low Well-Being (-.494), High Stress (-.349), and insufficient Technical Preconditions (-.275) affected satisfaction with studies negatively. Mean comparisons with t-test showed significant differences between males and females. Males reported higher satisfaction with studies but significantly lower well-being, less satisfaction with university support for online learning and university information. The differences between males and females, although statistically significant, mean differences were small to moderate (.023-.044).It is concluded that University contributions to the change from campus- to online studies are significant factors affecting student’s well-being and satisfaction with studies. Furthermore, the role of Social Identification in students Well-being and Satisfaction with studies should be further investigated. The planes for the future is to write a comparative study in the European project.