Milling is one of the most crucial processes in machining. Every industry demands a stable milling process for a smoother finish and material cost reduction. Chatter is a vibrating phenomenon which affects the workpiece's quality, its dimensional accuracy, and tool life. It is required to classify the chatter phenomenon to devise an effective chatter prevention strategy.

Several classification strategies are being used, including frequency and time-related strategies. Since the chattering phenomenon is a frequency-based phenomenon so a frequency-based feature set can be of vital importance. However, frequency-based strategies have a problem of noise. The noise problem can be addressed by combining frequency and time-domain methods.

Thus, a hybrid approach based on the frequency and time-based feature set is developed and used in conjunction with k-means-based unsupervised learning to come up with a practical but reliable classifier. The proposed classifier algorithm offers good performance, clearly distinguishing between chatter and stable conditions.

Based on the chatter classification in this work, it is possible to identify thresholds for chattering detection. It is essential to mention that the thresholds obtained from this work will only be useful for the machine and tool used in the experiments and will not be of use for other machines and need more investigation. 

Friction Stir Extrusion (FSE) has been proven as an effective solid-state process to directly recycle metal chips into high-quality wires/rods/tubes. However, the demand for Al-based composite wires with enhanced properties is substantial, and achieving a uniform distribution of the strengthening phase within the composite wire by establishing a robust metal/ceramic interface remains a significant challenge. In this study, AA6082 Aluminum alloy wires reinforced with 12.5 vol% SiC particles, exhibiting homogeneous particle distribution and superior mechanical properties, were successfully produced through the FSE technique. The investigation focused on examining the influence of processing parameters and the addition of SiC reinforcement on the microstructure and mechanical characteristics of the extruded wires. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD), together with microhardness, bending, and tensile tests, were used to comprehensively analyze the resulting properties. The findings demonstrate a substantial enhancement in the wires’ mechanical properties due to the SiC particles. Both tool rotation and tool force were varied during the experimental campaign. Notably, the reduction in porosity and grain refinement resulted in a 12.78 % increase in tensile strength and an 18.6 % improvement in microhardness compared to Al 6082 alloy extruded wires. Grain orientation analysis revealed a fully recrystallized microstructure with a weak texture. Furthermore, the study evaluated power consumption and surface roughness while assessing the feasibility of deposition, thereby highlighting the potential application of this technique in advanced additive manufacturing processes. 

A key challenge in the production of high-grade automotive aluminum components through the High-Pressure Die Casting (HPDC) process is the imperative to minimize imperfection. In addressing this concern, this study utilizes friction stir processing (FSP), a widely recognized intense plastic deformation technique. FSP is applied to systematically alter the microstructure of HPDC Al-4Mg-2Fe, a prominent alloy extensively used in the die-casting sector. By using the pass strategy to incorporate both one-pass and two-pass approaches, the microstructure is selectively altered to establish a defect-free processed zone. The utilization of FSP demonstrates its efficacy in breaking aluminum dendrites and acicular silicon particles, leading to a uniformly dispersed arrangement of equiaxed silicon particles within the aluminum-based matrix. In addition, FSP eradicates porosity and disintegrates needle-like Fe particles, resulting in a more refined and homogeneously distributed structure. Subsequently, the material’s mechanical properties processed by FSP were assessed in the longitudinal direction concerning the processing axis and then compared with those of the original base material. The microstructural refinement and reduction in porosity induced by FSP result in a notable enhancement in hardness, with an increase of 23 % after one pass and 37 % after two passes. The substantial improvement in mechanical properties during the FSP process is predominantly attributed to modifications in the morphology, refinement, and dispersion of intermetallic particles within the matrix. This improvement is further complemented by the ultrafine dispersion of casting defects. This study underscores the efficacy of FSP as a valuable tool for modifying microstructures and improving mechanical properties in HPDC Al-4Mg-2Fe alloys. Such advancements align with the lightweighting objectives pursued by the automotive industry. 

An experiment study was conducted to locally improve the properties of Al6082-T6 alloy by adding hard particles reinforcement using Friction Stir Processing. Aluminum and its alloys are the most used as a substrate material in the fabrication of Aluminum surface composites because of their lightweight. Thus, aluminum alloy is widely preferred in generating surface composite that is used in sports, marine, aerospace, aircraft, automobile, electronics, railway, etc. Industry requirements ask for good-cost materials with very high properties and light weight. To meet the market requirements, this study has been conducted to investigate the development of the microhardness of Aluminum matrix composites after treating by Friction Stir Processing. From an economic perspective, it is important to enhance the property of the materials by treating the surface instead of the core of the materials. Thus, FSP consid ered in this study as a one of the green fabrication process because it can be done without fume or toxic gases during processing.

The basic principle of the Friction Stir Process is to use a rotating tool that provides the friction between the tool and the workpiece material producing heating, to produce the wanted plastic deformation. This project aimed to fabricate composites with different reinforcements. The reinforcements used were diamond, cubic Boron Nitride and Graphene. Friction Stir Process was carried out at the tool rotating speed of 1000, 1200 and 1500 rpm and traversing speed of 2, 3 and 5 mm/s. Effects of the number of Friction Stir Process passes were investigated. The samples were all mounted, ground, polished, and analyzed by SEM and optical microscope devices. Microhardness was recorded across the Friction Stir Process region using DU-RAMIN-40 AC1 device with applied load 20, 50, 100 gf.

It was concluded that a good refinement of the particles size can be achieved in the processed zones for all types of reinforcement. Increasing the number of stirring passes produced well distribution of reinforcement particles and reduced the agglomeration. While increasing rotation speed during processing of graphene reinforcement led to generate more heat, subsequence more agglomeration would be produced. Finally, the results showed that by incorporating diamond reinforcement using single FSP-pass increase the microhardness by about 20% while using double FSP-pass it was found that there was no significant improvement in the microhardness of the composite. A good improvement was also achieved by incorporating the cBN reinforcement where the improvement in the microhardness was also about 20% using single FSP-pass. Increasing rotating speed in FSPed GNP reinforcement leads to generate more heat which leads to more agglomeration or clustering of the reinforcement particles

The paper presents an investigation regarding the potential and the readiness for implementing performance indicators and performance measurement systems of the process planning work for metal working companies. The paper is based on a questionnaire survey distributed to process planners in the Swedish metal working industry. The main outcome of the investigation is a foundation for understanding the implementation of performance measures of the process planning work for CNC machining. The survey revealed a few strengths and short comings in the studied companies.

Fabrication and welding of structural components for the hot section of aero-engines continues to be of high importance to the manufacturing industry of aero-engines. This paper discusses and reviews the literature on hot cracking and strain age cracking, cracking phenomena that can occur during welding or subsequent heat treatment of precipitation hardened Ni- and Fe-Ni-based superalloys. The influence of chemical composition in terms of i.e. hardening elements and impurities, microstructure of base material and weld zone, together with welding processes and corresponding parameters and heat input are discussed and related to the cracking susceptibility of different nickel based superalloys.

The ability to weld repair three precipitation hardening superalloys, i.e. Alloy 718, Allvac 718Plus and Waspaloy, with gas tungsten arc welding, is compared in this study. Four different solution heat treatment conditions for each material were examined: Alloy 718 and Allvac 718Plus heat treated at 954uC–1 h, 982uC–1 h, 954uC–15 h and 1020uC–1 h and Waspaloy for 4 h at 996uC, 1010uC, 1040uC and at 1080uC. By metallography, the total number of cracks was evaluated in both the heat affected zone and the fusion zone, which made it possible to consistently rate the repair weldability of these three materials. Alloy 718 was significantly the best one, with Allvac 718Plus slightly better than Waspaloy. As expected, the solution heat treatment conditions only affected the heat affected zone cracking behaviour.

Electron beam welding of forged Allvac 718Plus superalloy has been carried out without any visible cracks in weld cross-sections. Healed cracks in the heat affected zone were, however, seen in most cross-sections with the healing as well as the cracking believed to be due to the constitutional liquation of the δ-phase. The δ-phase undergoes constitutional liquation in the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) and consequently decreases the ductility of the material and renders cracks in the HAZ but due to the large amount of eutectic liquid produced at the same time the healing of the opened cracks takes place.

Varestraint testing together with DSC and SEM-EDX analyses have been performed as means of investigating the hot cracking susceptibility of Allvac 718Plus, alloy 718 and Waspaloy. The solidification sequences in Allvac 718Plus and alloy 718 were very similar to each other starting by an initial solidification of the gamma phase, gamma/MC reaction at around 1260°C and then finally ending the sequence by gamma/Laves eutectic reaction at around 1150°C. Waspaloy had the same solidification sequence, except no Laves phase formation takes place, and solidification started at a somewhat higher temperature as compared to alloy 718 and the solidification sequence ends by a gamma/MC reaction at around 1245°C. The total amount of hot cracking in Waspaloy was shown to be much less than that in alloy 718 and in Allvac 718Plus which is believed to be related to the presence of the Laves eutectic in the latter two alloys with corresponding larger solidification ranges. Hot cracking of 718Plus is slightly less than in 718.

The susceptibility to heat affected zone cracking of Waspaloy has been investigated in terms of its hot ductility, measured as the reduction of area (RA). Gleeble testing with on-heating as well as on-cooling test cycles was carried out to illuminate the influence of different 4 h solution heat treatments between 996 and 1080°C. A ductility maximum of between 80 and 90%RA was found at 1050–1100°C for all conditions in the on-heating tests. Although the different heat treatment conditions showed similar macrohardness, the particle size and distribution of the γ′ and M₂₃C₆ phases differed, which significantly affected the on-heating ductility in the lower temperature test region. The ductile to brittle transition was initiated at 1100°C in the on-heating testing with indications of grain boundary liquation at the higher test temperatures. Ductility recovery, as measured in the on-cooling tests from 1240°C, was very limited with <30%RA for all conditions and test temperatures except for the 1080°C/4 h treatment, which exhibited 60%RA at 980°C.

The hot ductility of Allvac 718Plus for different solution heat treatments (954°C–15 h, 954°C–1 h, 982°C–1 h and 1050°C–3 h+954°C–1 h) has been investigated using Gleeble testing. Substantial variations in the microstructure among the heat treatments affected the Gleeble test hot ductility only to a very limited extent. Constitutional liquation of the NbC phase was found to be the main cause for the poor ductility at high testing temperatures in the on-heating cycle as well as at the lower temperatures on-cooling. Grain boundary δ phase was seen to assist the constitutional liquation of the NbC phase. Based on established evaluation criteria for Gleeble ductility testing, a ranked indicator for weldability is suggested.

The hot ductility as measured by Gleeble testing of Alloy 718 at four different solution heat treatments (954°C/15 h, 954°C/1 h, 982°C/1 h and 1050°C/3 h+954°C/1 h) has been investigated. It is concluded that constitutional liquation of NbC assisted by δ phase takes place and deteriorates the ductility. Parameters established by analysing the ductility dependence on temperature indicate a reduced weldability of the material in the coarse grain size state (ASTM 3) while indicating an increased weldability when containing a large amount of δ phase due to a grain boundary pinning effect. The accumulation of trace elements during grain growth at the highest temperature is believed to be the cause for the observed reduced on-cooling ductility.

This article explains development of high strength and lightweight Ti6Al4V5Cr alloy by μ-plasma powder additive manufacturing (μ-PPAM) process for automotive, aerospace, military, dies and moulds, and other similar applications. Microstructure, formation of phases, porosity, microhardness, tensile properties, abrasion resistance, and fracture toughness of multi-layer deposition of Ti6Al4V5Cr alloy are studied and compared with Ti6Al4V alloy. Results reveal that the presence of chromium in Ti6Al4V5Cr alloy refined the grains of its β-Ti and α-Ti phases, increased volume % of β-Ti phase, and promoted formation of its equiaxed grains. It also increased tensile strength, microhardness, abrasion resistance, and fracture toughness of Ti6Al4V5Cr alloy. It enhanced solid solution strengthening and formed higher hardness imparting intermetallic Cr2Ti phase and changed fracture mode to mixed ductile and brittle mode with larger size dimples, cleavage facets, and micropores. But it decreased formation temperature of β-Ti phase and % elongation as compared to Ti6Al4V alloy. Chromium and vanadium content in β-Ti phase of Ti6Al4V5Cr alloy is 7 % and 2.1 % more than its α-Ti phase. This study demonstrates that inclusion of limited amount of chromium content to Ti6Al4V5Cr alloy by μ-PPAM process is very beneficial to enhance microstructure, mechanical properties, crack propagation resistance, and abrasive wear resistance of the Ti6Al4V5Cr alloy. It makes Ti6Al4V5Cr alloy very useful in many commercial applications that require higher strength than Ti6Al4V alloy along with lightweight requirement.

ATI 718Plus® is a γ′-strengthened nickel-based superalloy developed to substitute the widely used Alloy 718 in aero-engine applications. This newer superalloy is a candidate material for aero-engine turbine structures, with the requirement to withstand impact loading occurring at high strain rates during turbine blade out events. Furthermore, the understanding of the high strain rate response of ATI 718Plus® is important in optimising its machinability during cutting operations. To predict and model the behaviour of ATI 718Plus® during these events and in other dynamic impact applications, proper understanding of the high strain rate behaviour of the alloy is important, but not presently available. Therefore, in this work, the influence of microstructural condition and strain rates on dynamic impact behaviour of ATI 718Plus®, using a modified version of direct impact Hopkinson bar, is investigated. It is observed that the age-hardened alloy exhibits a significantly reduced strain hardening and strain rate hardening capabilities compared to the solution heat treated microstructure. Furthermore, microstructural examination of the deformed samples shows that the formation of adiabatic shear bands, which usually serve as damage nucleation site, is substantially suppressed in the solution heat treated microstructure, while the aged microstructure exhibits high propensity to form localised shear bands.

A detailed microstructural study of ATI 718Plus superalloy produced by the wire-arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) process was performed through the use of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), electron probe micro-analysis (EPMA), and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). Extensive formation of eutectic solidification microconstituents including Laves and MC-type carbide phases, induced by micro-segregation, are observed in the build of the alloy in the as-deposited condition. Notwithstanding the significant segregation of niobium (Nb), which has been reported to promote the formation of the delta-phase in ATI 718Plus, only eta-phase particles are observed in the deposit. Excessive precipitation of eta-phase particles is found to be linked to Laves phase particles that are partially dissolved in the deposit after post-deposition heat treatment (PDHT). The EBSD analysis shows a high textured build in the aOE (c) 100 > directions with only a few misoriented grains at the substrate-deposit boundary and the top of the deposit. Investigation on the hardness of the build of the alloy, in the as-deposited condition, showed a softened zone about 2 mm wide at the deposited metal heat affected zone (DMHAZ), which has not been previously reported and potentially damaging to the mechanical properties. An extensive analysis with the use of both microstructural characterization tools and theoretical calculations shows that the DMHAZ has the lowest volume fraction of strengthening precipitates (gamma’ and gamma aEuro(3)) in terms of their number density, which therefore induces the observed softness. Delayed re-precipitation kinetics and the extent of the precipitation of gamma’ and gamma aEuro(3) in the DMHAZ which is related to the diffusion of segregated solute elements from the interdendritic regions are attributed to this phenomenon. The microstructural analyses discussed in this work are vital to adequate understanding of properties of ATI 718Plus produced by the additive manufacturing process technique.

The hot corrosion behaviour of wire-arc additive manufactured and wrought ATI 718Plus® are studied. ATI 718Plus® produced by the additive manufacturing process, in the as-processed condition, exhibits a significantly lower hot corrosion resistance in comparison to the wrought alloy. Analytical electron microscopy and spectroscopy techniques, with corroboration by thermodynamic calculations, are used to identify the underlying cause of the poor hot corrosion resistance. Based on the understanding accrued from the analyses, post-processing heat treatments are used to improve the hot corrosion resistance, which is valuably pertinent to the application of ATI 718Plus® produced by additive manufacturing in hot corrosive environments. © 2019 Elsevier Ltd

Duplex stainless steels (DSS), with a ferritic-austenitic microstructure, are used ina wide range of applications thanks to their high corrosion resistance and excellent mechanical properties. However, efficient and successful production and joining of DSS require precise control of processes and an in-depth understanding o frelations between composition, processing thermal cycles, resulting microstructures and properties. In this study laser welding, laser reheating, and laser additive manufacturing using Laser Metal Deposition with Wire (LMDw) ofDSS and resulting weld and component microstructures and properties are explored.

In the first part a lean FDX 27 duplex stainless steel, showing the transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) effect, was autogenously laser welded and laser reheated using pure argon or pure nitrogen as shielding gas. The weld metal austenite fraction was 22% for argon-shielding and 39% for nitrogen-shielding in as-welded conditions. Less nitrides were found with nitrogen-shielding compared to argonshielding. Laser reheating did not significantly affect nitride content or austenite fraction for argon-shielding. However, laser reheating of the nitrogen shieldedweld removed nitrides and increased the austenite fraction to 57% illustrating the effectiveness of this approach.

Phase fraction analysis is important for DSS since the balance between ferrite and austenite affects properties. For TRIP steels the possibility of austenite tomartensite transformation during sample preparation also has to be considered. Phases in the laser welded and reheated FDX 27 DSS were identified and quantified using light optical microscopy (LOM) and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) analysis. An optimized Beraha color etching procedure was developed for identification of martensite by LOM. A novel step-by-step EBSD methodology was also introduced, which successfully identified and quantified martensite as well as ferrite and austenite. It was found that mechanical polishing produced up to 26% strain-induced martensite, while no martensite was observed after electrolytic polishing.In the second part a systematic four-stage methodology was applied to develop procedures for additive manufacturing of standard 22% Cr duplex stainless steel components using LMDw combined with the hot wire technology. In the four stages, single-bead passes, a single-bead wall, a block, and finally a cylinder with an inner diameter of 160 mm, thickness of 30 mm, and height of 140 mm were produced. The as-deposited microstructure was inhomogeneous and repetitive including highly ferritic regions with nitrides and regions with high fractions ofaustenite. Heat treatment for 1 hour at 1100 ̊C homogenized the microstructure, removed nitrides, and produced an austenite fraction of about 50%. Strength, ductility, and toughness were at a high level for the cylinder, comparable to those of wrought type 2205 steel, both as-deposited and after heat treatment. The highest strength was achieved for the as-deposited condition with a yield strength of 765 MPa and a tensile strength of 865 MPa, while the highest elongation of 35% was found after heat treatment. Epitaxial growth of ferrite during solidification, giving elongated grains along the build direction, resulted in anisotropy of toughness properties. The highest impact toughness energies were measured for specimens with the notch perpendicular to the build direction after heat treatment with close to 300 J at -10^oC. It was concluded that implementing a systematic methodology with a stepwise increase in the deposited volume and geometrical complexity can successfully be used when developing additive manufacturing procedures for significantly sized metallic components.

This study has illustrated that a laser beam can successfully be used as heat source in processing of duplex stainless steel both for welding and additive manufacturing. However, challenges like nitrogen loss, low austenite fractions and nitride formation have to be handled by precise process control and/or heat treatment.

This paper aims at the phase identification and quantification in transformation induced plasticity duplex stainless steel (TDSS) base and weld metal containing ferrite, austenite, and martensite. Light optical microscopy (LOM) and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) analysis were employed to analyze phases. Samples were either mechanically or electrolytically polished to study the effect of the preparation technique. Mechanical polishing produced up to 26% strain-induced martensite. Electrolytic polishing with 150 g citric acid, 300 g distilled water, 600 mL H3PO4, and 450 mL H2SO4 resulted in martensite free surfaces, providing high-quality samples for EBSD analysis. Martensite identification was challenging both with LOM, due to the similar etching response of ferrite and martensite, and with EBSD, due to the similar lattice structures of ferrite and martensite. An optimized Beraha color etching procedure was developed that etched martensite distinctively. A novel step-by-step EBSD methodology was also introduced considering grain size and orientation, which successfully identified and quantified martensite as well as ferrite and austenite in the studied TDSS. Although here applied to a TDSS, the presented EBSD methodology is general and can, in combination with knowledge of the metallurgy of the specific material and with suitable adaption, be applied to a multitude of multiphase materials. It is also general in the sense that it can be used for base material and weld metals as well as additive manufactured materials.

A systematic four-stage methodology was developed and applied to the Laser Metal Deposition with Wire (LMDw) of a duplex stainless steel (DSS) cylinder > 20 kg. In the four stages, single-bead passes, a single-bead wall, a block, and finally a cylinder were produced. This stepwise approach allowed the development of LMDw process parameters and control systems while the volume of deposited material and the geometrical complexity of components increased. The as-deposited microstructure was inhomogeneous and repetitive, consisting of highly ferritic regions with nitrides and regions with high fractions of austenite. However, there were no cracks or lack of fusion defects; there were only some small pores, and strength and toughness were comparable to those of the corresponding steel grade. A heat treatment for 1 h at 1100 degrees (C) was performed to homogenize the microstructure, remove nitrides, and balance the ferrite and austenite fractions compensating for nitrogen loss occurring during LMDw. The heat treatment increased toughness and ductility and decreased strength, but these still matched steel properties. It was concluded that implementing a systematic methodology with a stepwise increase in the deposited volume and geometrical complexity is a cost-effective way of developing additive manufacturing procedures for the production of significantly sized metallic components.

Duplex stainless steel (DSS) blocks with dimensions of 150 × 70x30 mm3 were fabricated by Laser Metal Deposition with Wire (LMDw). Implementation of a programmable logic control system and the hot-wire technology provided a stable and consistent process producing high-quality and virtually defect-free deposits. Microstructure and mechanical properties were studied for as-deposited (AD) material and when heat-treated (HT) for 1 h at 1100 °C. The AD microstructure was inhomogeneous with highly ferritic areas with nitrides and austenitic regions with fine secondary austenite occurring in a periodic manner. Heat treatment produced a homogenized microstructure, free from nitrides and fine secondary austenite, with balanced ferrite and austenite fractions. Although some nitrogen was lost during LMDw, heat treatment or reheating by subsequent passes in AD allowed the formation of about 50% austenite. Mechanical properties fulfilled common requirements on strength and toughness in both as-deposited and heat-treated conditions achieving the highest strength in AD condition and best toughness and ductility in HT condition. Epitaxial ferrite growth, giving elongated grains along the build direction, resulted in somewhat higher toughness in both AD and HT conditions when cracks propagated perpendicular to the build direction. It was concluded that high-quality components can be produced by LMDw and that deposits can be used in either AD or HT conditions. The findings of this research provide valuable input for the fabrication of high-performance DSS AM components

Duplex stainless steel (DSS), specifically the 2209 grade, is increasingly employed in additive manufacturing, particularly in processes like directed energy deposition using a laser beam with wire (DED-LB/w). However, a significant challenge arises when DSS faces brittleness within the temperature range of 250–500 °C. This study employs advanced characterization techniques, including atom probe tomography (APT) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), to investigate DSS embrittlement after aging at 400 °C for up to 1000 h. The hardness analysis revealed that the higher Ni content in DED-LB/w-fabricated DSS cylinder promotes the age hardening compared to 2205 wrought DSS plate. Furthermore, APT and TEM demonstrated that, alongside the decomposition of ferrite into Fe-rich (α) and Cr-rich (αʹ) phases, clustering of Ni, Mn, and Si atoms contributes to the embrittlement. Although the Ni-Mn-Si-rich clusters could suggest nucleation of G-phase, the G-phase crystal structure was not observed by TEM. This might be attributed to the short aging time or limitations in the characterization technique. This work underscores the impact of characterization techniques on the measurement of spinodal decomposition, with APT providing capability of detecting nanometer sized clusters. By elucidating the complexities of 475 °C-embrittlement in DED-LB/w DSS, this study offers valuable insights for industrial applications and a deeper understanding of age hardening in duplex DSSs under specific manufacturing conditions. 

The effects of applied pressure and temperature during spark plasma sintering (SPS) of additive-containing nanocrystalline silicon carbide on its densification, microstructure, and mechanical properties have been investigated. Both relative density and grain size are found to increase with temperature. Furthermore, with increase in pressure at constant temperature, the relative density improves significantly, whereas the grain size decreases. Reasonably high relative density (~96%) is achieved on carrying out SPS at 1300 °C under applied pressure of 75 MPa for 5 min, with a maximum of ~97.7% at 1500 °C under 50 MPa for 5 min. TEM studies have shown the presence of an amorphous phase at grain boundaries and triple points, which confirms the formation of liquid phase during sintering and its significant contribution to densification of SiC at relatively lower temperatures (≤1400 °C). The relative density decreases on raising the SPS temperature beyond 1500 °C, probably due to pores caused by vaporization of the liquid phase. Whereas β-SiC is observed in the microstructures for SPS carried out at temperatures ≤1500 °C, α-SiC evolves and its volume fraction increases with further increase in SPS temperatures. Both hardness and Young׳s modulus increase with increase in relative density, whereas indentation fracture toughness appears to be higher in case of two-phase microstructure containing α and β-SiC.

The present endeavour is to augment mechanical attributes via friction stir processing (FSP) in hypereutectic aluminium-silicon castings by the means of microstructural modifications and defects reduction. Wherein, the study proceeds with mainly two approaches namely, alteration in tool revolution (TR) and the number of FSP passes. The prepared specimens were evaluated investigating volume fraction of porosities, microstructural characterizations and microhardness. Therefrom, the specimen with highest number of passes delivered most uniform properties resulting from the reduction in casting porosities and refined silicon particle uniform distribution throughout friction stir processed zone. This endeavour may be considered as a footstep towards more industrial readied material transformation.

Casting in additively manufactured sand molds enables complex designs but cast components generally suffer from a rough surface. In the present work, the influence of printing orientation on sand mold roughness and its transfer to the cast component are experimentally investigated. Because of the Mean-Line method filtering, traditional standardized roughness parameters do not permit to catch the different scales linked to the sand printing process. In contrast, Fourier analysis made on printed sand surfaces highlights the impact of printing direction on sand surface stratification that imprint stratifications on metal casting. Metal wettability is characterized, from sand grain scale to stratification step scale, and is correlated to the roughness scales that are transferred from the mold to the casting. Eventually, a transfer function is determined for the present casting conditions. 

his paper provides a comprehensive assessment of the sliding and abrasive wear behaviour of WC–10Co4Cr hardmetal coatings, representative of the existing state-of-the-art. A commercial feedstock powder with two different particle size distributions was sprayed onto carbon steel substrates using two HVOF and two HVAF spray processes.Mild wear rates of < 10-7 mm3/(Nm) and friction coefficients of ≈ 0.5 were obtained for all samples in ball-on-disk sliding wear tests at room temperature against Al2O3 counterparts. WC–10Co4Cr coatings definitely outperform a reference electrolytic hard chromium coating under these test conditions. Their wear mechanisms include extrusion and removal of the binder matrix, with the formation of a wavy surface morphology, and brittle cracking. The balance of such phenomena is closely related to intra-lamellar features, and rather independent of those properties (e.g. indentation fracture toughness, elastic modulus) which mainly reflect large-scale inter-lamellar cohesion, as quantitatively confirmed by a principal component analysis. Intra-lamellar dissolution of WC into the matrix indeed increases the incidence of brittle cracking, resulting in slightly higher wear rates. At 400 °C, some of the hardmetal coatings fail because of the superposition between tensile residual stresses and thermal expansion mismatch stresses (due to the difference between the thermal expansion coefficients of the steel substrate and of the hardmetal coating). Those which do not fail, on account of lower residual stresses, exhibit higher wear rates than at room temperature, due to oxidation of the WC grains.The resistance of the coatings against abrasive wear, assessed by dry sand–rubber wheel testing, is related to inter-lamellar cohesion, as proven by a principal component analysis of the collected dataset. Therefore, coatings deposited from coarse feedstock powders suffer higher wear loss than those obtained from fine powders, as brittle inter-lamellar detachment is caused by their weaker interparticle cohesion, witnessed by their systematically lower fracture toughness as well.

Thermography is today used within non-destructive testing for detecting several different types of defects. The possibility for using thermography for detecting surface cracks in welded metal plates has here been investigated. During testing the weld is illuminated using a high power infrared light source. Due to surface cracks acting like black bodies, they will absorb more energy than the surrounding metal and can be identified as a warmer area when imaged using an infrared camera. Notches as well as real longitudinal cold cracks in a weld are investigated using the presented method. The results show that thermography is promising as a method for detection cracks open to the surface.

Surface crack defects can be detected by IR thermograpgy due to the high absorption of energy within the crack cavity. It is often difficult to detect the defect in the raw data, since the signal easily drowns in the background. It is therefore important to have good analysis algorithms that can reduce the background and enhance the defect. Here an analysis algorithm is presented which significantly increases the signal to noise ratio of the defects and reduces the image sequence from the camera to one image.

This study aimed to numerically and experimentally investigate lump formation during atmospheric plasma spraying with powder injection downstream the plasma gun exit. A first set of investigations was focused on the location and orientation of the powder port injector. It turned out impossible to keep the coating quality while avoiding lumps by simply moving the powder injector. A new geometry of the powder port ring holder was designed and optimized to prevent nozzle clogging, and lump formation using a gas screen. This solution was successfully tested for applications with Ni-5wt.%Al and ZrO2-7wt.%Y2O3 powders used in production. The possible secondary effect of plasma jet shrouding by the gas screen, and its consequence on powder particles prior to impact was also studied.

The obtaining of a flux for hardfacing by Submerged Arc Welding (SAW), using ferrochrome-manganese and slag obtained from the simultaneous carbothermal reduction of chromite and pyrolusite is addressed. The ferrochrome-manganese and the slag were obtained, conceiving that both products satisfy the requirements of the components (alloy system and matrix) of an agglomerated flux for hardfacing. The fusion-reduction process to obtain the alloy and the slag was carried out in a direct current electric arc furnace. The pouring was carried out into water to facilitate the separation and grinding of the cast products. An experimental flux was manufactured, using the obtained alloy and slag. Deposits were obtained by SAW, which were characterized in terms of: chemical composition, microstructure and hardness. It was concluded that the flux obtained from ferrochrome-manganese and slag from the simultaneous carbothermal reduction of chromite and pyrolusite, allows to deposit an appropriate metal for work under abrasion conditions, characterized by significant carbon and chromium contents and a martensitic microstructure predominantly, with hardness of 63 HRc.

This bachelor’s thesis aims to investigate the material properties of Waspaloy through samples built with different process parameters for DED-LB/M. Three samples were selected and classified as sample one, two, and three, and various heat treatments were performed on three leftover samples from number three. All samples were taken from a previous study and were built on a stainless steel substrate.

The samples underwent polishing and etching. Grain width and growth direction were examined with a light microscope. The microstructure was further analyzed with a scanning electron microscope (SEM), and the material composition was analyzed with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The heat-treated samples underwent hardness analyses. Simulations in Thermo-Calc were conducted to increase the understanding of Waspaloy's microstructure. The light microscope analysis showed that the grains at the bottom were smaller than in the rest of the build, but the number of grains decreased and grain size increased with height. Grain orientation and growth direction varied more near the substrate and also decreased with height. For the heat-treated samples, similar patterns were observed but with more distinct homogenization of the microstructure.

The EDS analyses showed varying percentages of alloying elements. Increased levels of iron near the substrate were noted for samples one and three. Diffusion of alloying elements linked to different precipitations were identified, including increased precipitation of secondary phases after age hardening. The hardness measurements showed that two of the three heat-treated samples underwent precipitation of hardening phases, with values up to 480 HV and 372 HV. Non-heat-treated samples showed minimal precipitation. The ThermoCalc simulations resulted in a Scheil diagram, an equilibrium calculation, and a TTT diagram for Waspaloy, which increased the understanding of secondary phase precipitation.

The conclusion is that the microstructure is affected by the process parameters, but all samples follow a similar pattern in grain size, orientation, and growth direction. Secondary phases have precipitated but could not be precisely identified. The hardness results show that heat treatment affects precipitation, but even non-heat-treated samples have undergone some precipitation. Further analysis with SEM is recommended to confirm the identified phases, as well as investigation of grain orientation and size with electron backscatter diffraction. Larger builds and additional mechanical tests are also recommended.  

Ductility regression is the main concern in using Ti-834 titanium alloy at temperatures above 500 °C for aerospace applications. The reduction of ductility in titanium alloys at high temperatures is strongly correlated to the exposure time. In the current study the effect of prolonged exposure at 500 °C on the tensile ductility of two differently processed Ti-834 alloys was investigated. In order to simulate actual Ti-834 processing routes, forged and centrifugally cast materials were used. The tensile tests were conducted on various specimens exposed at 500 °C for 100, 200 and 500 h to observe microstructure feature changes. Moreover, the effect of microstructure, microtexture, α-case, α₂ and silicide precipitate coarsening during high temperature exposure was studied thoroughly. The cast alloy was found to have a minimum ductility and failed at 1.8% strain after exposure at 500 °C/500 h when the α-case layer was retained during testing, whilst, the ductility of the forged alloy was unaffected. The effects of individual microstructural parameters on the ductility regression in Ti-834 alloy were quantified. The results showed that 7.1% strain differences between the cast and forged alloy are related to microstructural variations including; morphology, lath widths, grain size and shape, grain orientations and microtexture. A total of 9.6% strain loss was observed in centrifugally cast Ti-834 after aging at 500°C/500 h and quantified as follow; 3.6% due to α-case formation during high temperature exposure, 0.2% due to α₂-precipitates coarsening, 4.4% due to further silicide formation and coarsening, 1.4% due to additional microstructure changes during high temperature exposure. Furthermore, silicide coarsening on α/β phase boundaries caused large void formation around the precipitates. A theoretical model supported by experimental observations for silicide precipitation in fully colony and duplex microstructures was established. The element partitioning during exposure caused Al and Ti depletion in the vicinity of the β phase in the lamellae, i.e., α_s area. This resulted in lowering the strength of the alloy and facilitated the formation of Ti₃(SiZr)₂ precipitates. The Al depletion and nano-scale partitioning observed at the α_s/β boundaries resulted in easy crack initiation and promoted propagation in the centrifugally cast colony microstructure and reduced the basal slip τ_crss. Furthermore, silicides were not formed in α_p (high Al, Ti and low Zr areas) in the forged duplex microstructure that promoted superior mechanical performance and ductility over the cast alloy.

Graphical abstract

Several advanced alloy systems are susceptible to weld solidification cracking. One example is nickel-based superalloys, which are commonly used in critical applications such as aerospace engines and nuclear power plants. Weld solidification cracking is often expensive to repair and, if not repaired, can lead to catastrophic failure. This study, presented in three papers, presents an approach for simulating weld solidification cracking applicable to large-scale components. The results from finite element simulation of welding are post-processed and combined with models of metallurgy, as well as the behavior of the liquid film between the grain boundaries, in order to estimate the risk of crack initiation. The first paper in this study describes the crack criterion for crack initiation in a grain boundary liquid film. The second paper describes the model for computing the pressure and the thickness of the grain boundary liquid film, which are required to evaluate the crack criterion in paper 1. The third and final paper describes the application of the model to Varestraint tests of alloy 718. The derived model can fairly well predict crack locations, crack orientations, and crack widths for the Varestraint tests. The importance of liquid permeability and strain localization for the predicted crack susceptibility in Varestraint tests is shown. © 2019, The Author(s).

Several advanced alloy systems are susceptible to weld solidification cracking. One example is nickel-based superalloys, which are commonly used in critical applications such as aerospace engines and nuclear power plants. Weld solidification cracking is often expensive to repair, and if not repaired, can lead to catastrophic failure. This study, presented in three papers, presents an approach for simulating weld solidification cracking applicable to large-scale components. The results from finite element simulation of welding are post-processed and combined with models of metallurgy, as well as the behavior of the liquid film between the grain boundaries, in order to estimate the risk of crack initiation. The first paper in this study describes the crack criterion for crack initiation in a grain boundary liquid film. The second paper describes the model for computing the pressure and the thickness of the grain boundary liquid film, which are required to evaluate the crack criterion in paper 1. The third and final paper describes the application of the model to Varestraint tests of Alloy 718. The derived model can fairly well predict crack locations, crack orientations, and crack widths for the Varestraint tests. The importance of liquid permeability and strain localization for the predicted crack susceptibility in Varestraint tests is shown. © 2019, The Author(s).