Contribution

Mathematics is perceived by many students as a particularly difficult subject, and many tend to experience higher levels of anxiety in relation to mathematics compared to other subjects (Goetz et. al., 2007). At the same time, mathematical competencies are fundamental to several aspects of contemporary society (OECD, 2013). Fostering motivation is therefore important for supporting students who experience difficulties in mathematics, especially since motivation is a driving force for learning mathematics over time (Wigfield et al., 2016). A number of studies have shown a positive relationship between motivation and achievement in mathematics, regardless of theoretical approach (e.g., Kriegbaum et. al., 2018; Prast et. al., 2018). Students who are motivated also tend to engage more in mathematical activities because they find them enjoyable and interesting (Eccles & Wigfield, 2004), and the development of motivation for mathematics during elementary school is related to the choice of mathematics-intensive careers (Musu-Gillette et. al., 2015).

One of the most important theories of motivation for mathematics is the Expectancy Value Theory of Motivation (EVM) proposed by Eccles, Wigfield, and colleagues. According to EVM, motivation is a function of a person's expectancy of success and the value they place on the task. Expectancy of success refers to a person's belief in his/her own ability to to successfully complete a task, and value refers to the importance or relevance of the task to the person's goals or interests. Students with a higher expectancy of success and a higher value placed on mathematics tend to have higher motivation and achievement in mathematics (Wigfield et. al., 2016).

Another theory relevant to motivation is Dweck's (1995) theory of implicit intelligence. The theory states that individuals can have implicit beliefs about the nature of intelligence that can be either fixed or malleable. People with a fixed mindset believe that intelligence is not changeable, whereas people with a growth mindset believe that intelligence can be developed through effort and learning. Students' implicit beliefs about intelligence are related to both academic achievement and motivation (e.g., Song et al., 2022), implying that students with a growth mindset tend to develop several adaptive academic behaviors, such as higher motivation and achievement, than those with a fixed mindset (Yeager and Dweck, 2012).

Wigfield et al. (2004) hypothesized that Dweck's theory of implicit intelligence is related to EVM in that individuals who believe their abilities cannot be improved through effort will not engage in activities they believe they are not very good at. However, few studies have examined how such motivational beliefs are formed in children. Eccles and Wigfield (2020) proposed in their situated expectancy-value theory (SEVM) that beliefs and values are also shaped by social context, such as family, peers, and culture. In a study of how parental beliefs about fixedness of ability affect interactions with their children, Muenks et al. (2015) found that parents with fixed mindsets engaged in more controlling and achievement-oriented behaviors and were less likely to engage in math-related activities with their children. Although few studies have examined how parents' mindset affects their children's motivation, a study by Song et al. (2022) showed that children reported having greater self-reported persistence when their parents had more growth mindset. Xie et al. (2022) also found that parents' mindset indirectly predicted math anxiety through their failure beliefs.

Thus, the present study aims to investigate the role of parents' beliefs about mathematical ability, i.e., their fixed or growth mindset, in fostering student motivation. Specifically, we focus on parents' beliefs of mathematical ability as innate or malleable, and whether and how parents' mindsets affect students' self-concepts about their ability, value, and achievement of mathematics.